that of President All Abdullah Saleh, leader of North Yemen since 1978, who became president of the unified state, and that of South Yemen, which laid claim to "scientific socialism". San'a, capital of the North, became the capital of the "new" Yemen.
LUIZA MARIA
ESPITE the two wars
D between the North and the
South — in 1972 and 1979 — unity has always been on the order of the day for the two "enemy sister" republics. The current unification was set in motion by the signing, in May
1988, of an agreement on the common exploitation of the oil rich frontier zone of
Marib (in the north) and Shabwa (in the
From a strictly historical point of view, this event suppressed an "artificial" frontier dating from British colonial times
(see chronology). North Yemen is, with
Saudi Arabia, the only Arab region never colonized by the Europeans;
domination there was only partial. Pre- capitalist tribal social structures have subsisted in the mountains to this day. British colonization in the South was restricted to the merchant port of Aden, leaving a great part of South Yemen in a state similar to that of the north, although formally subject to the British protectorate.
Civil war follows Nasserite coup
Until 1962, North Yemen was ruled by the Zaidite imams. In September 1962, a group of officers, influenced by Nasser's
Egypt, put an end to the monarchy and established the Arab Republic of Yemen, continually threatened since then by elements faithful to the Imamate, who enjoy the support of Saudi Arabia. A five year civil war between the republicans, supported by the Egyptian army, and the royalists supported by the Saudi neighbour, ensued.
The social evolution of South Yemen was marked by the British colonization,
12 refieries in the world. The coming which made Aden one of the greatest
International Viewpoint #210 • July 8, 1991 together of Yemeni trade unionism, inspired by that of Britain, Arab nationalism, and the revolution in the North led, in 1963, to the creation of the National Liberation Front (NLF, which became, in October 1978, the Yemenite Socialist Party, YSP) in the South, which came to lead the popular anticolonial movement.
In 1964 guerilla warfare spread to Aden and scored several victories against the British, who were forced to withdraw in November 1967. The NLF suffered from internal rivalries, which persisted up until 1969, when the most radical forces, who described themselves as "Marxist-Leninist", triumphed, creating the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in November 1970'.
### Radical measures implemented
The new regime nationalized industrial production (except for the Aden refincommercial distribution immovable property. It implemented radical agrarian reform. It guaranteed legal equality between the sexes — South Yemen adhered to the international convention on the elimination of all discriminatory measures based on sex - creating a unique situation in the Arab peninsula (11 women in Parliament and one on the Presidential committee. This transition towards "socialism" in a very poor country, largely illiterate, with tribal structures which were still very strong, ran up very quickly against enormous difficulties which obliged the regime to dilute its
The Yemeni revolution attempted to break out of its isolation by supporting the guerilla movements in Dhofar (to the south of Oman), the National Democratic
US base was installed at Masira (an island off Oman). Meanwhile, North Yemen was totally strangled economically and politically by its powerful and reactionary neighbour, Saudi Arabia.
Until 1976, Soviet aid to South Yemen was very limited; the regime was considered as ultra-left by Moscow, which at that time was advocating the Egyptian model as the "non capitalist road to development". Only after the Soviet-Egyptian rupture in 1972 did the German Democratic Republic (GDR) begin to cooperate with South Yemen. Parallel to this, the bureaucratic characteristics of the regime were accentuated, starting in 1978, through the elimination of the most radical elements. The accent was put on a policy of peaceful coexistence in the region, and South Yemen ceased to support the revolutionary movements in the peninsula - and, in 1982, the opposition in the North.
### Violent rivalries within bureaucracy
This new policy of the Yemeni leadership led to violent confrontations inside the bureaucratic apparatus in 1986, all the more bloody through being mixed up with clientelist factors and tribal rivalries.
The course of Gorbachev's perestroika led, in 1987, to the decline of Soviet military and economic aid in the name of the principle of "non-interference" and of
"the self-sufficiency of the country"2. The East Germans, principal instructors at the Institute of Scientific Socialism, and assistants in security matters, had put an end to their participation in the development of South Yemen well before the unification of the two Germa-
The country was then on its last legs, partially destroyed by the armed confrontations of 1986 and seriously damaged (to the tune of $750 million) by the floods of March-April 1989. Austerity measures were applied in exchange for international aid, leading to serious erosions of the standard of living of the people and new phenomena; begging, delinquency and passive resistance from the bureaucracy, which boycotted the government's directives and organized the smuggling of state-subsidized products towards North Yemen, thus augmenting the poverty. Completely exhausted, the country had to find new solutions.
The years 1988 and 1989 were marked by a series of measures liquidating progressively the gains of the revolution,
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Front (NDF, left opposition to the San'a regime) and Eritrea. Despite the support of Cuba, South Yemen was very isolated on a regional level; Arab nationalism proved bankrupt; the Palestinian resis-
under the influence of Soviet perestroika.
From 1988 onwards, the frontier with the north was opened to trade to deal with popular discontent with the penury in the south. The agreement on the common exploitation of the oil zone of Marib and Shabwa envisaged — beyond the demiliinstallation of a consortium of oil compa- tarization of a zone of 2,200km2 - the nies?.
In 1988, also, a series of democratic measures were taken, such as authorization for the return of 30,000 refugees abroad and the liberation of 35 political detainees. In 1989, a law was adopted by the Supreme Council of the People on the election of popular councils by secret ballot, while abroad were lifted. Finally, the central committee of the Yemen Socialist Party (YSP), until then the single party, recognized multipartyism and called on all "national forces" to participate in political production and leads to a massive recourse to food imports;
TURKEY and this, since qat is not exported, con-
CYPRUS ( tributes to the
LEBANON deepening of
Mediterraneen
See the trade defi-
ISRAEL cit.
For its part,
North Yemen, hit by an ecoentered upon a order to implicate the oppo-
YEMEN
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Gulf Co-operation Council Gorbachev blesses Arab Co-operation Council unification
The disengagement of the Eastern bloc countries from South Yemen resulted in a forced improvement in relations with the North, leading, on May 22, 1991, to unification, with Gorbachev's blessing. The "symbols" are disappearing: Marx, Engels and Lenin and red stars are no longer found in the streets of Aden, which is, indeed, to become a free trade
Since June 1989, a process of liberalization and dismantling of the public sector has begun and the autonomy of the cooperatives has grown, with increasing output and putting a brake on the rural exodus. Private investment in housing is henceforth allowed, and measures to encourage exports adopted.
Steps have also been taken to encourage profit sharing in the workplaces. A draft law on investments and a 33% devaluation of the national currency have been carried through to attract the capital of the Arab bourgeoisie. Finally, in 1990, some stimulants for the private sector were introduced in the artisanal and light industrial sectors, and the nationalization laws of 1970 have been annulled.
Meanwhile, with the aim of increasing agricultural output, currently in free fall, halting the rural exodus and harmonizing with the North, Aden has lifted the restrictions on the cultivation of qat, which for the last 15 years have limited the cultivable surfaces and the time devoted to its consumption (rest days alone). The cultivation of qat fills the state's coffers in the North thanks to the levies effected directly by the army on entry to the towns, and it keeps the peasants on the land, yielding an income six times higher than that furnished by more traditional cultivations (like coffee) - however, it reduces food managing the crisis. In 1987, Yemen ratified the International Convention on trade union freedoms and, 1989, that of the right of organization and of collective negotiation.
The income from the oil deposits at Alif, recently exploited and newly linked to the port of Salif by a pipeline, has not been as high as expected and this has weighed heavily on the trade balance. North Yemen holds at least one world record; that of the lowest ratio of exports to imports (1%).
Its Gross National Product (GNP) is barely superior to that of the south. For the first six months of 1989, the balance of payments deficit was $753 million, or an increase of 45% in relation to 1988. Any comparison with the South, notably in the field of social gains - totally non existent in the North - bears testimony to the significant efforts made by the People's Democratic Republic in health and education. In the North, out of 20,000 teachers, 15,000 are foreigners (above all
Iraqi support for unification
Initially planned for November 1990, unification was brought forward by some months under the pressure of regional events, a month before the annexation of
This union of oil interests was supported by the Iraqi dictatorship, a member, Ike Jordan, Egypt and the Arab Republic of Yemen, of the Arab Cooperation Coun-
Created in February 1989, this seeks to counterbalance the weight of the oil monarchies of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) - which comprises Oman, the
ETHIOPIA United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrein, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
For Iraq, North Yemen was primarily a partisan of the fixing of quotas and an increase in the price of oil (opposed by Saudi Arabia and Kuwait) and moreover a state with control of the east bank of Bab el Mandeb, the second most important oil strait after that of Ormuz, the west bank being controlled by Djibouti.
The Yemeni leaders in both the north and the south now want to stop the fundaneighbouring Saudi Arabia — from gain-
These latter exploit the discontent of the tribes who fear being disarmed and in the North they have caused controversy over the Constitution. However, they cannot oppose unification, since they claim to struggle against all that divides the
According to them, the new charter is in contradiction with the sharia, the Islamic law, which is not made "the sole source of 1. On June 22, 1969, the first president of the Republic of South Yemen, Qahtan as-Shaabi, representing the right wing of the movement and a partisan of the Egyptian Nasserite model, was overthrown by the left wing of the NLF, supporters of a more clearly pro-Soviet model. 2. Le Monde, January 22, 1987. 3. Hunt Exxon (United States), Total (France), Techno Export (USSR), Kuwait Petroleum Exploration Company (Kuwait). 4. On March 13, 1990, Gorbachev sent a message approving the unification of the two Yemens.
A plant which is chewed to produce a mildly euphoric effect. 6. The community of believers in Islam. 7. The Party of the People for Reform comprises the Muslim Brotherhood, the northem tribes who traditionally look towards Saudi Arabia, which has always messed an is caded is Sheikh Abdala Bi Amia busi: 13 nessmen. Its leader is Sheikh Abdallah El Ahmar. July 8, 1991 • #210 International Viewpoint
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KISTAN
UNTIL the establishment of the British protectorate, Yemen was a Muslim province, governed from 893 onwards by Zaidite (a Shi'a sub-sect) imams
YEMEN been extended to two years. The most significant law is that forbidding partisan activities in the army.
This is essentially aimed at the army of South Yemen whose troops are in their majority members of the YSP. But the based in the north. The dynasty lasted until 1962
The Ottoman empire seized control of the coast and the port of Aden in the 16th century, extending its grip to San'a in the 19th century.
In the middle of the 19th century, the British conquered Aden and installed a protectorate in the south. But they were only interested in the town of Aden, because of its situation and their strategic interests in the region.
• In September 1962, a Nasserite coup d'état overthrew the imamate in
North Yemen; subsequently, a war broke out between the republicans, supported by the Egyptian army, and the partisans of the imamate, supported by
Saudi Arabia and Britain.
• On October 14, 1963, inspired by the events in the North, the National Liberation Front (NLF) of South Yemen began armed struggle against the British.
• In 1965, an agreement was signed between Egypt and Saudi Arabia concerning the settlement of the conflict in North Yemen.
• On November 10, 1967, after 128 years of British colonization, South
Yemen became independent. The NLF became the hegemonic leadership and effected a break with Egypt, particularly because of its agreement with Saudi
Arabia over the North. The left wing, represented by Abdel Fattah Ismail and
Salem Rubayya Ali, were in the majority, against the right led by Qantan as-
Shaabi. The latter nonetheless became the first head of state of the Republic of
• On June 22, 1969, the left tendency overthrew as-Shaabi, and Salem
Rubayya Ali became president. The country was renamed the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen.
• In March 1970 the civil war in North Yemen ended. The regime was profoundly unstable because of strong tribal rivalries and the pressures of Saudi
Arabia. In 1978, Colonel Ali Abdullah Saleh installed himself as head of state.
• Following the Soviet-Egyptian break, South Yemen began to emerge from its isolation and draw closer to the Eastern bloc nations, especially in the period from 1974 onwards. Divergences appeared between the president, Rubayya
Ali, and Abdel Fattah Ismail, partisan of a much closer relationship with the Stalinist states.
• On June 24, 1978, Salem Rubayya Ali attempted a military uprising, with the support of a part of the army. Violent confrontations followed, particularly in
Aden, at the end of which Rubayya Ali was executed. Abdel Fattah Ismail and
Ali Nasser Mohammed became the leaders of the NLF, creating the Yemen
Socialist Party as the country's single party in October 1978.
• In February-March 1979, there was renewed fighting between the two
• In 1980, new factional struggles emerged between Ali Nasser Mohammed supported by the Minister of Defence Ali Antar, and the president Abdel Fattah
Ismail, who was seeking to extend his hegemony throughout the party. The latter was forced to resign his functions as head of state and party, and exile himself to Moscow. Ali Antar was then dismissed by the new president.
• In 1985 Abdel Fattah Ismail returned from exile and allied himself with Ali
Antar against Ali Nasser Mohammed, in a conflict which in 1986 led to violent armed confrontations, particularly in Aden, and more than 4,000 deaths. Ali
Nasser Mohammed was forced into exile and Abdel Fattah Ismail killed. * legislation", but only the "principal source" (Article 3 of the Constitution).
In the North, the fundamentalists regrouped in January 1991 in the Party of the People for Reform, Al Islah, whilst Saudi Arabia has continued its pressure against Yemen, signing, three months before unification, an agreement with the sultanate of Oman, which gave the Saudis a right of passage towards the Arabian Sea, through the province of Mawa, bordering Yemen, thus achieving the submission of the sultan - whose oil reserves will be exhausted in another 25 years.
The Gulf crisis has not stopped the new 14 nas progre pursly timisi the horizons ta state from pursuing fusion, but its fallout International Viewpoint #210 • July 8, 1991 new Yemenite bourgeoisie in formation. The measures taken at the economic level are significant; a law on the acquisition of public property; priority given to the exploration and exploitation of oil and silver, copper and gold mines; the development and modernization of the Aden refinery; an agreement of support to the private sector with the US government, Holland and the United Nations Develop. ment Fund for the financing of local industries; an appcal launched exiled bourgeoisie of South Yemen that it returns to invest in the country.
This project obviously rests on rebuilding the army as a comerstone of the national consensus. Military service has government of the new Yemen needs the army of the South in its current state if it wishes to reestablish the effective unity of the country, that is to vanquish the tribal opposition.
It is significant that this measure will not take effect until the end of the transitional period, which is to be completed by May 21, 1992. Before then, the new state hopes to regain areas to the North which currently escape its control. Until now, there have only been symbolic exchanges between military units rather than fusion, as is the case with most other parts of the two state sectors.
Long term ties between Baghdad and North
Relations between San'a and Baghdad go back to the 1940s. During the Iran-Iraq war, the Arab Republic of Yemen was the only outside country to participate in the conflict, sending a contingent of 1,500
Indeed, despite what has often been said, it is less the supposed traditional "anti-imperialist" weight of the South than the close links between the ex-North Yemen and Iraq which determined the position of the unified Yemen during the conflict, as was the case with most of the Arab states who did not join the "allied"
During the Gulf crisis, unified Yemen, involved for the first time in an international crisis and occupying the Arab seat on the UN Security Council, systematically abstained on the resolutions condemning Iraq and opposed the recourse to armed force against the country.®
This position has cost the new state dear, and the increase in the price of oil (coming when the new, recently discovered, deposits have not yet been exploited) has not been enough to offset the losses; the return of a million totally dispossessed Yemenis, expelled from Saudi Arabia, has swelled the number of unemployed (the new state has 12 million inhabitants) and means the loss to the country of foreign currency transfers ($160 million a year).
The cessation of Saudi economic aid, which covered the trade deficit, the interruption of US financial aid, the annulation of refining contracts for Iragi oil and the end of bilateral cooperation with the imperialist countries, make it, indeed, the victim of an unofficial embargo. * 8. This attitude also expressed itself in popular demonstrations; on August 9 and 11 before the Egyptian embassy; on August 14 in all the big towns; and on August 15 in Aden, organized by the YSP. On January 18, 1991, thousands of people demonstrated in San'a and attacked the British embassy.